Category Archives: State Practice

On 27 December 2020, in accordance with Articles 5, 7, 8, 10, 13 and 14 of UNCLOS, Presidential Decree No. 107 applies closing lines to the listed bays (Article 2 and Table) and further straight baselines (Article 3 and Table) in the maritime area of the Ionian and the Ionian islands up to Cape Tainaro in the Peloponnese. According to the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, an extension of the territorial sea will be forthcoming as the baselines are “a necessary step in the process for extending the country’s territorial waters in the above-mentioned area”.

While limited in application to the Ionian Sea, Article 1(3) of Presidential Decree No. 107 provides that “The Hellenic Republic reserves the right to exercise its respective rights in the other regions of its Territory, as they derive from the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of ​​10 December 1982, which reflects customary international law”.

The Government of the United Kingdom (UK) has announced the creation of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the waters around its Overseas Territory of Tristan da Cunha (13 November 2020). This MPA is set to become the largest fully protected marine reserve in the Atlantic Ocean, at 687,000 square kilometres. The research leading to this declaration was supported by the UK’s Blue Belt Programme. More information is available here.

on 9 November 2020 the Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of Greenland on enhancing cooperation on fisheries and related issues was signed in duplicate in London and Nuuk by representatives of the UK and Greenland. The governments of the UK and Greenland will establish a UK-Greenland fisheries dialogue (‘the Fisheries Dialogue’) to “discuss, share information, and cooperate on fisheries and marine issues, and other associated matters”.

The non-exhaustive list of matters for the Fisheries Dialogue includes fisheries, aquaculture, fish processing and the wider supply chain, broader marine conservation, scientific cooperation and mutual support in international fora (e.g. RFMOs) (Paragraph 1). Non-state actors may be involved, most notably in fostering private sector or scientific cooperation (Paragraphs 2, 5). The Fisheries Dialogue shall meet at least annually (Paragraphs 3-4). The MoU will come into effect on 1 January 2021 (Paragraph 7).

On 29 October 2020 the Framework Agreement on Fisheries Between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Faroes was signed in Copenhagen by representatives of the UK and Faroes Islands. The Framework Fisheries Agreement recognizes zonal attachment as an important principle of international fisheries management (preamble). Modern principles of international fisheries law shall guide cooperation (Article 1), with annual negotiations on the possible exchanges of quotas or access to waters (Articles 2-3). Parties shall cooperate on fishing vessel licensing (Article 4) and further future arrangements on monitoring, control and enforcement are envisaged (Article 5).

The Framework Fisheries Agreement applies to the EEZ (or variations thereof) and, subject to domestic ratification, will enter into force 1 January 2021 (Article 11). The Agreement applies only to metropolitan UK and only to the Faroes Islands (Article 10).

For more information see the Explanatory Memorandum and UK Press Release.

The Government of Norway submit a proposal (6 November 2020) to ban ships from using heavy fuel oil (HFO) near Svalbard archipelago. The Ministry of Climate and the Environment aims to legislate a requirement for fuel for motor traffic at sea in the entire territorial waters of Svalbard. The provision is designed as a ban on using or having on board other petroleum-based fuel than natural gas and marine gas oil. A more detailed definition of natural gas and marine gas oil is proposed to be included in regulations on motor traffic on Svalbard. The proposal includes a transition period of two years for general cargo traffic to Longyearbyen and Barentsburg. The need for transitional arrangements will be reassessed after the ongoing consultation stage (see here, deadline 6 February 2021). More information is available here (in Norwegian).

The House Natural Resources Committee of the United States House of Representatives has introduced on 20 October 2020 the Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act (OBSCA). Bill text of the OBSCA can be viewed here, a section-by-section summary is here, and a fact sheet on the bill can be viewed here. Among other measures, the OBSCA establishes monitoring, reporting, and verification requirements of greenhouse gas emissions applicable “to all vessels of 5,000 gross tons or more calling at, leaving, or transiting between, or at berth at, ports in the United States, regardless of flag” (sections 1401-1402). More information on OBSCA is available here and here.

On 30 September 2020 the Framework Agreement on Fisheries between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Kingdom of Norway was signed in London by representatives of the UK and Norway. On 19 October 2020 the Framework Fisheries Agreement was laid before the UK Parliament and published. The Framework Fisheries Agreement provides for annual negotiations on the exchanges of quota and access to waters (Arts. 3-4), as well as collaboration on control and enforcement measures (Art. 6), the licensing of vessels (Art. 5) and scientific research (Art. 1(h)). The Framework Fisheries Agreement recognizes the importance of zonal attachment as a principle of international fisheries management (preamble).

The Framework Fisheries Agreement applies to the EEZ (Art. 2) (or variations thereof) and, subject to domestic ratification, will enter into force 1 January 2021 (Art. 11). The Agreement applies to metropolitan UK only. According to the UK Government, it represents the first fisheries agreement for the UK ‘as an independent coastal state in 40 years’. Separate trilateral discussions will still be needed to establish trilateral governance arrangements for North Sea stocks (UK, Norway and the EU).

For more information see the Framework Fisheries Agreement, UK Explanatory memorandum and press releases (UK; Norway).

On 9 October 2020 the West of Scotland Marine Protected Area Order 2020, a Scottish Ministerial Order, entered into force, creating the largest MPA located in national waters within the North-East Atlantic. Features of the former Rosemary Bank Seamount MPA are now protected within the West of Scotland MPA.

For more information see here.

On 9 September 2020 the President of the United States of America by Proclamation 10071, entitled, Revision to United States Marine Scientific Research Policy, establishes the revised US policy:

Section 1. Policy. The United States will exercise its right to regulate, authorize, and conduct marine scientific research, with a specific requirement to authorize, in advance, all instances of foreign marine scientific research, in the United States EEZ and on its continental shelf to the extent permitted under international law.

Former President of the United States of America, Ronald Regan, in the Presidential Statement of 10 March 1983, entitled, Statement on United States Oceans Policy, had established the previous US MSR policy:

While international law provides for a right of jurisdiction over marine scientific research within such a zone, the proclamation does not assert this right. I have elected not to do so because of the United States interest in encouraging marine scientific research and avoiding any unneccessary burdens.

Thus, according to the US State Department Press Release, the United States previously required advance consent for MSR conducted in its EEZ and on the U.S. continental shelf only when such research implicated certain U.S. domestic legal requirements.

On 26 August 2020, the US State Department announced visa restrictions on “individuals responsible for, or complicit in, either the large-scale reclamation, construction, or militarization of disputed outposts in the South China Sea, or the PRC’s use of coercion against Southeast Asian claimants to inhibit their access to offshore resource”. This includes inadmissibility to the USA for listed persons and visa restrictions for immediate family members. The persons listed remain confidential, but are inadmissible on the basis of US foreign policy concerns (senior State Department official; 8 USC 1182(a)(3)(c)).

On 26 August 2020, the US Department of Commerce announced that 24 Chinese companies were added to the Entity List (15 CFR 744.16) of the Export Administration Regulations on the basis “these entities enabled China to reclaim and militarize disputed outposts in the South China Sea” (85(167) Federal Register 52898). The US government determined it had “reasonable cause to believe, based on specific and articulable facts, that the entity has been involved, is involved, or poses a significant risk of being or becoming involved in activities that are contrary to the national security or foreign policy interests of the United States” (15 CFR 744.11). A license is required, to the extent specified on the Entity List, to export, reexport, or transfer (in-country) any item subject to the Export Administration Regulations.

On the 27 August 2020, the Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesperson called the measures “unjustified”.

The President of the United States of America issued Proclamation on Modifying The Northeast Canyons And Seamounts Marine National Monument (5 June 2020). This proclamation restores commercial fishing that is carried out in accordance with Magnuson-Stevens and other applicable laws, regulations, and requirements. It reverses restrictions on commercial fishing set forth in Proclamation 9496, which prohibited commercial fishing, with a phase-out period for American lobster and red crab fisheries, within the monument’s boundaries.

In Massachusetts Lobstermen’s Association v. Ross, the United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit (349 F.Supp.3d 48 (2018)), dismissed a complaint from several commercial-fishing associations that challenged the creation of the Monument (5 October 2018). The United States District Court, District of Columbia (9945 F.3d 535 (2019)) upheld that ruling (27 December 2019).

The new Proclamation may be found here.

On 24 June 2020 the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources of the Federal Republic of Somalia (2) issued a press release, entitled, Iranian flagged fishing vessels identified operating illegally in Somalian EEZ. Somalia calls upon Iran to cooperate in addressing the suspected (at least) 112-193 Iranian fishing vessels operating in the EEZ of Somalia and Yemen between January 2019 to 14 April 2020. The information has been shared with the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC). Foreign flagged vessels may only fish in the Somalian exclusive economic zone beyond 24 nautical miles, and currently only 31 Chinese-flagged vessels are licenced.

The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) has published recommendations authorizing France to extend its continental shelf off the islands of La Réunion and Saint-Paul and Amsterdam. According to these recommendations, published on 10 June 2020, France may extend its continental shelf off the islands of La Réunion and Saint-Paul and Amsterdam (French Southern and Antarctic Lands). France will thus expand its submarine domain by 151,323 km2 (58,121 km2 off La Réunion and 93,202 km2 off Saint-Paul and Amsterdam). Further information is available here (in French).

The Department of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines issued a statement (30 April 2020) contesting the so-called districts of “Nansha” and “Xisha” under the supposed administrative jurisdiction of its self-declared “Sansha City” announced on 18 April 2020 by the People’s Republic of China. According to this announcement by China, “the Xisha District of Sansha City has jurisdiction over the islands and reefs of the Xisha Islands and its sea areas, and is in charge of the islands and reefs of the Zhongsha Islands and its sea areas”. The statement from the Philippines is available here.

The United States of America also issued a statement (22 April 2020) describing China’s announcement as a “new unilateral announcement of administrative districts over disputed islands and maritime areas in the South China Sea”.

On 4 February 2020 the Russian Foreign Minister sent a message to the Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs on the 100^th anniversary of the Spitsbergen Treaty. The letter raises numerous ‘concerns’ including “the unlawfulness of Norway’s fisheries protection zone” and requests further bilateral consultations.

For further information see MID Press Release № 180-04-02-2020.

On 29 January 2020 the UK Parliamentary Under Secretary of State (Minister for Rural Affairs and Biosecurity) introduced to the House of Lords the Fisheries Bill (HL Bill 71). As previously reported, the bill was first introduced during the last parliament in the House of Commons. As set out in the Explanatory Notes (HL Bill 71):

Since the Bill was most recently considered in the last Parliament, the Government has included additional provisions: a single set of UK-wide fisheries objectives (including a new climate change objective); a duty to create fisheries management plans to fish at sustainable limits for all stocks; and a broadening of the grant making power. The Bill also provides further powers for the Welsh and Scottish Governments that reflect a number of those granted to the Secretary of State, and a change to the commencement provisions (para. 3).

Of particular interest for international fisheries law is the climate change objective (clause 1(1)(h), 1(9)) and the fisheries management plan obligations (clauses 6-9).

For further information see the Human rights memorandum and the previous white paper, Sustainable fisheries for future generations. Progress of the Bill may be followed here.

The eighth meeting of the Malaysia-Singapore Joint Technical Committee (MSJTC) on the Implementation of the International Court of Justice Judgment on Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge was held 21 January 2020 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The outcomes of the meeting include:

“The Meeting further agreed for the Sub-Committee on Maritime Boundary Delimitation of Pedra Branca, Middle Rocks and South Ledge to commence negotiations.”

For further information see the Joint Press Statement by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Singapore and Malaysia respectively.

The MSJTC is a cooperative process established to implement the 2008 ICJ Judgment (Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore)). See further the discontinued Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 23 May 2008 in the case concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore) (Malaysia v. Singapore).

On the 30 December 2019 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia formally protested against Chinese vessels allegedly involved in IUU fishing activities in Indonesia’s EEZ (referred to by Indonesia as the ‘North Natuna Sea’), as well as the presence of a Chinese Coast Guard vessel. Indonesia’s response included summoning the Chinese Ambassador to Jakarta and submitting a diplomatic memorandum of protest.

The Indonesian position repeated its rejection of the Chinese ‘nine-dash line’, reiterated China’s obligations to comply with both UNCLOS (as a state party) and the South China Sea Arbitration Award (UNCLOS, Annex VII, Article 11; South China Sea Arbitration Award, Paragraph 1200) and reiterated Indonesia’s position that Indonesia does not have any overlapping jurisdiction with China in the South China Sea. On 1 January 2020 a subsequent statement by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia rejected the claims by China to historic maritime waters as without legal basis, as well as any Chinese references to ‘relevant waters’ as unrecognized in UNCLOS. “Indonesia Urges the People’s Republic of China to explain the legal basis and clear boundaries regarding the claims of the PRC in [the South China Sea] based on UNCLOS 1982” (Paragraph 3 [in Indonesian]).

In November 2015 a Chinese spokesperson stated “[t]he Chinese side has no objection to Indonesia’s sovereignty over the Natuna islands”. To date, in response to the December 2019 incident a Chinese spokesperson (31 December 2019; 2 January 2020) has repeated its general position on the South China Sea without further detail.

The Parliament of Morocco (Commission des Affaires étrangères, de la défense nationale, des affaires islamiques et des Marocains résidant à l’étranger à la Chambre des représentants) has approved (16 December 2019) two bills (projets de loi) concerning the delimitation of maritime zones. The projet de loi n° 37.17 alters the previous legislation on the territorial waters, updating existing baselines with more recently surveyed data; the projet de loi n° 38.17 alters previous legislation concerning the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf. Both bills were first presented in 2017 and they apply to the waters adjacent to the Southern Provinces of Morocco, located within a Non-Self Governing Territory listed under Chapter XI of the Charter of the United Nations as “Western Sahara“.

The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Morocco has stated that these initiatives “do not mean the unavailability of Morocco for a solution to any possible conflict with its neighbours Spain and Mauritania”. This statement is available here (in French). In response, the Government of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic published a statement saying that the “unilateral Moroccan act to claim Western Sahara maritime zones is null and void”. This statement is available here.

*** Update 2020/04/07: Bills 37.17 and 38.17 have been turned into laws. The laws were published in the Official Bulletin on 30 March 2020. ***

The Government of Iceland (Minister for the Environment and Natural Resources) has issued a regulation tightening fuel requirements for ships, which effectively bans the use of heavy fuel oil in the territorial sea of Iceland. The change is brought about by an amendment to Iceland’s regulation on sulphur content of certain liquid fuels (reglu­gerð nr. 124/​2015). The permissible sulphur content of marine fuels used in the territorial sea and internal waters of Iceland is lowered from 3.5% down to 0.1%. In addition, the permissible sulphur content of marine fuels is lowered down to 0.5% within the Icelandic Pollution Prevention Zone outside of the territorial sea. More information here.

Turkey and Libya have signed (27 November 2019) a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the delimitation of the maritime jurisdiction areas in the Mediterranean.

The MFA of Greece considered (28 November 2019) that “the signing by Turkey and Libya of a memorandum of understanding cannot violate the sovereign rights of third countries” and that “such an action would be a flagrant violation of the International Law of the Sea and would produce no legal effect”. The Minister also noted that “between the two countries there is the large geographical mass of Crete”.

In response, the MFA of Turkey stated (1 December 2019) that “islands cannot have a cut-off effect on the coastal projection of Turkey” and that “the islands which lie on the wrong side of the median line between two mainlands cannot create maritime jurisdiction areas beyond their territorial waters and that the length and direction of the coasts should be taken into account in delineating maritime jurisdiction areas”.

Turkey had submitted earlier in the month (13 November 2019) to the UN a list of geographical coordinates, concerning the outer limits of Turkey’s continental shelf in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, where Turkey exercises ipso facto and ab initio exclusive sovereign rights and jurisdiction stemming from international law (A/74/550).

Turkey has not signed the UNCLOS and has opposed the new international legal regime of islands during UNCLOS III in two occasions (160th meeting and 189th meeting).

Base points for Turkey-Libya Continental Shelf/EEZ Coordinates List. Source: T.C. Resmi Gazete, 6 December 2019.

On the 30 October 2019, three maritime delimitation agreements concerning the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles in the southern part of the “Banana Hole” (North Atlantic) were signed, between Norway and Iceland, Norway and Denmark/The Faroe Islands and Iceland and Denmark/The Faroe Islands respectively. The Delimitation Agreements will enter into force when both parties to the respective Agreements have ratified the Agreement.

For further information see the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Danish). While the text of the Agreements is not yet published, it is stated by Norway to be in line with the previous 2006 Agreed Minutes where authors may also find a (preliminary and illustrative) 2006 map.

The Government of India (Directorate General of Shipping, Mumbai) has issued an Order on the prohibition of use of single use plastics on board ships. This ban is applicable to all Indian ships and to foreign ships in port or within Indian waters. The enforcement shall be undertaken on the basis of flag and port state capacity surveys, inspections and audits.

Surveyors carrying out port state inspection of foreign flag vessels are expected to ensure that single use plastics are not in use and are kept locked in a store during their stay in Indian ports and on their passage through the territorial waters of India. A foreign ship intending to enter an Indian port is required to make a log entry identifying “Single Use Plastic Items” on board the ship. No single use plastic items are to be discharged to port reception facilities at an Indian port. The Order further clarifies that no detention of foreign ships is to be enforced.

DGS Order No. 05 (16 October 2019) is available here.

On 24 September 2019 the State of Palestine deposited a second Declaration of the State of Palestine regarding the maritime boundaries of the State of Palestine in accordance with the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea. In addition to repeating the provisions of the 2015 Declaration, the 2019 declaration includes geographical coordinates and an illustrative map which define the baselines and limits of the Palestinian claim:

Source: Declaration of the State of Palestine, 24 September 2019, Annex, p. 12

On the 8 October 2019 the Foreign Minister of the State of Palestine also deposited a “legal file on the maritime borders of Palestine” with the Secretary General of the Arab League, including the map and a request for circulation.

The UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) has approved and endorsed a joint claim from the Federated States of Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. The joint claim over 600,000 square kilometers of additional seabed, on what is known as the Ontong Java Plateau, was lodged in 2009. More information is available here and here.

 Map of final foot of continental slope (FOS) positions in the North and South Regions, received from the Joint Delegation on 26 July 2016. Source: Commission on the Limits
of the Continental Shelf.

Tuvaijuittuq is the first Marine Protected Area to be designated by ministerial order under the Oceans Act for interim protection. Under the order, no new or additional human activities will be allowed to occur in the area for up to five years, with the following exceptions: the exercise of Inuit rights respecting wildlife harvesting as provided for under the Nunavut Agreement; marine scientific research consistent with the conservation objectives of the MPA; safety, security and emergency activities; certain activities carried out by a foreign national, entity, ship or state. The objective of this MPA is to contribute to the conservation, protection and understanding of the natural diversity, productivity and dynamism of the High Arctic sea ice ecosystem. This MPA encompasses an area of 319 411 km2. More information is available here.

Tuvaijuittuq Marine Protected Area. Source: Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

The Bailiwick of Guernsey’s territorial seas shall increase in size on 23 July 2019. The current limit of the Bailiwick’s territorial seas is 3 nautical miles (nm) from the baselines. The new limit will be 12 nm. The territorial sea would extend to less than 12 nm wherever the distance between the baselines of the Bailiwick and the baselines of another party (France or Jersey) is less than 24 nm. Fishing access in the waters around the Bailiwick, from 0 to 12 nautical miles, will remain unchanged on the date of extension. The Bailiwick fisheries management regime will also remain the same as it was before extension until any new regime is subsequently agreed. More information is available here.

Bailiwick of Guernsey maritime boundaries. Source: States of Guernsey.